Example 12



She was born with a silver spoon in her mouth; she thinks she can do what she likes.



她生长在富贵之家，认为凡事都可以随心所欲。 (Zhang, 1980: 163)



(My back translation: She was born in a wealthy family....)



Example 13



He who keeps company wtih the wolf will learn to howl"



近朱者赤，近墨者黑。 (Guo, 1996: 183)



(My back translation: He who touches vermillion will be reddened, and he who deals with



ink will be blackened.)



Example 14



Great men are not always wise.



人有失手日，马有失蹄时。(Guo, 1996: 182-3)



(My back translation: Men will make mistakes, horses all stumble.)



4.2 Analysis



The analysis is based on the following five common translation methods: (1) Literal translation (retaining the same image in the target language); (2) Replacing the SL image with a standard TL image; (3) Literal translation plus sense and explanation; (4) Converting the metaphor to meaning; (5) Using Chinese couplets to replace the English metaphor.



Metaphors in examples 1, 2, 3 and 6 are translated literally. The aim of literal translation is to retain the national or local colour, the original images as well as the foreign expressions so as to enrich the target language . (Zhang, 1980: 161). "To his ancestors" (Example 1) "去见祖先" , is a euphemism for "to die". This expression is vivid and easy for the ordinary Chinese reader to understand. "Armed to the teeth" (Example 2) "武装到牙齿" sounds a bit exaggerating but very impressive. The image of a person armed to the teeth is so picturesque that it is hard for the target language reader to forget. This literal translation has been widely accepted since New China was established.



"A more common procedure for translating metaphors is to replace the SL image with another established TL image, if one exists that is equally frequent within the register" (Newmark, 1988: 109). The proverbs in examples 4,5, and 7, are all adapted into Chinese versions, replacing the SL images with TL images which are familiar to the Chinese reader. These Chinese images are widely different from but similar in sense to the original ones . Perhaps it is all right to render the proverb in example 4 "among the blind the one-eyed man is king" literally into "盲人之中单眼汉为王", because the meaning as well as the image is clear. But the proverb "One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy" is a concept rather than an image, if it is translated literally, it would be wordy and may not be able to impress the Chinese reader as strongly as the converted version.



There has been some arguments about the translation of the metaphorical saying "Talking of the devil, and he will appear". Some (Zhang, 1980; Lu, 1993) believe that it is acceptable to convert it into "说到曹操，曹操就到" because this figurative expression is known to all, while others (Guo, 1996; Li, 1995) think that Caocao is a national figure in the Chinese history who represents certain features of the Chinese culture. If the original text is about western culture and western people, it would be inappropriate to bring CaoCao into the scene. Perhaps that is why Li and his colleagues decided to translate it literally into "说鬼鬼到" ( Example 6).



The translation method applied to metaphors in examples 8, 11 and 12 is "free translation" (the usual Chinese term) or in Newmark's words, converting the metaphor to sense. To the Chinese reader, the image of "a skeleton in the cupboard", may mean ugly, horrible and frightening; "a wet blanket" is merely a blanket which is soaked with water, and "a silver spoon" is just a spoon different from a china spoon. They may not be able to understand the referential meanings these images carry in the metaphors. Most probably for this reason the metaphors are all converted to sense, to more general expressions, "family scandal" (家丑) , "a disappointment" (令人扫兴的人) and "a wealthy family"(富贵之家) which are abstract concepts rather than concrete images. Snell Hornby is right in saying that "as an abstract concept, metaphor might be universal; in its concrete realization however, being closely linked with sensuous perception and culture-bound value judgments, it is undoubtedly complicated by language-specific idiosyncrasies" (1988: 62-3).



The metaphor in Example 9 is the same as that in Example 8, but is treated differently. Actually, there has been some arguments about the translation of this metaphorical phrase. In an article written in 1981, Feng Shize says that if the English idiom "skeleton in the cupboard" is translated literally into "衣柜里的骷髅", the Chinese reader might not understand what it means, so he suggested to render it to sense. In another article written later in the same year, Xu Shigu (徐世谷) does not subscribe to Feng's opinion. He argues that if the first translator of the metaphor "the crocodile's tears" thought in the same way as Feng, the Chinese reader would not have been able to understand the image, neither could the expression be able to get into the Chinese vocabulary. Xu proposed translating it literally plus meaning or explanation. But it took a long time for people to accept the "skeleton" image:. In the English-Chinese Dictionary (unabridged) , the standard dictionary of this kind in China, the translation of the metaphor is nearly the same as Feng's. It was not until 1992 had the "the skeleton" image been directly brought into the Chinese culture, although with a brief interpretation to reveal its implied meaning (see Example 9).



The translation of "To carry coals to Newcastle" indicates another common problem. Zhang and his colleagues translate this metaphor literally into "运煤到纽卡?quot; and then add the referential meaning "多此一举" (making an unnecessary move). Still they assume that it can not be understood completely because the reader may not know what "Newcastle" means, so they suggest making a note to identify this place rich in coal.



In the last two examples, we see that "He who keeps company with the wolf will learn to howl" is turned into "近朱者赤，近墨者黑" (He who touches vermilion will be reddened, and he who deals with ink will be blackened); "Great men are not always wise" becomes "人有失手日，马有失蹄时" (Men will make mistakes, horses all stumble). There is a change of image and references in both translations. Antithetical couplets are a special feature in the Chinese culture. When the Chinese couplets are used to render the English proverbs, the translated version often bring in more images than the original although the philosophy of the proverb remains the same.



5. Findings and implications



Are SL culture specific expressions replaced purely and simply or are they more often than not retained in Chinese translations? My investigation shows neither. From the above examples of metaphor translation and analysis, we can see that methods 1 and 3 ( literal translation; literal translation plus sense and explanation) are practiced with the concept of foreignization. The translator "deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreigness of the original" (Shuttleworth &Cowie, 1997:59). The translator's choice, in Venuti's words, is an ethno-deviant pressure on target language values "to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (1993: 20).



Methods 2, 4 and 5 (Replacing the SL image with a standard TL image; Converting the metaphor to meaning; using Chinese couplets to replace the English metaphor.) are domesticating strategies, in which "a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers" (Shuttleworth &Cowie, 1997:59).



Then what makes the translator decide on the domesticating or foreignizing strategy? My research shows that



(1) When the basic metaphorical concepts of SL and TL communities correspond, as in "to our ancestors" and "armed to teeth", the original image or flavour is most likely to be retained.



(2) When they come cross SL historical, geographical or folk heritage in cultural-specific metaphors as such "to carry coals to Newcastle" and "a skeleton in the cupboard/closet", the Chinese translator would try very hard to find suitable solutions for them. The best solution so far is to retain the original image or cultural -specific features with the support of interpretations so that the implications of the story generally accepted by members of the culture eventually get cross to the TL reader.



(3) The TL reader's response is still a significant criterion and the main consideration in metaphor translation. When the associations of an image in the SL is lacking in the TL, for



instance, "to be born with a silver in one's mouth", "a wet blanket", the translator tends to adapt the metaphor into idiomatic target language expressions.



(4) When translating the English metaphor, particularly those embedded in proverbs, such as "He who keeps company with the wolf will learn to howl" and "Great men are not always wise", the Chinese translator, more often than not, seeks for an equivalent expression (e.g. a Chinese couplet) to replace the original, although the equivalence is sometimes far from accurate.



6. Conclusion



On examining the translation of metaphor and the discussion of some of the problems involved, I have realized that different methods of translation are changeable rather than fixed, contingent rather than eternal. Whether to use foreignizing or domesticating strategy depends on different factors such as the importance and the contextual factors of the SL text, the consideration of referential accuracy, the reader's acceptability and the "pragmatic economy" (Newmark, 1988b: 110). I believe there are special problems involved in the translation of metaphor, but the theory of the translation of metaphor is justifiable within the general theory of translation. To sum up, in translation practice, there is no foreignization without some degree of domestication, by the same token, there is no domestication without some degree of foreignization.



张美芳



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